A review of key milestones in previous COP conferences

Updated 14 October 2026

From 9 to 20 November 2026, the 31st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP31) takes place in Antalya, Turkey. A decade after the Paris Agreement entered into force, the conference is set to focus on turning existing commitments into action.

To understand this year's negotiations, it helps to look back at the milestones that brought us here.

What is the COP?

COP stands for the Conference of the Parties, the annual climate summit of the United Nations (UN). Since 1995, almost every member nation on Earth has come together in a different country each year, except for 2020.

The UN describes the COP as “the supreme decision-making body” of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It includes representatives of all the countries that are signatories, known as parties, to the UNFCCC. During each COP, the parties review the progress towards the overall goal of the UNFCCC: to tackle climate change.

The world was slow to recognise the urgency of climate change

For a long time, environmental issues like climate change and global warming were not a major concern of the international community or the UN. However, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a growing environmental consciousness emerged.

In 1972, 27 years after its foundation, the UN organised its first international Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden. Known as the first Earth Summit, this conference adopted a declaration that set out 26 principles for the preservation and enhancement of the human environment, agreed upon an action plan containing 109 recommendations, and founded the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).

Since then, the environment has slowly crept up the international agenda. In 1979, the first World Climate Conference (WCC) took place in Geneva, Switzerland. Nine years later, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed. Its first assessment report on climate change was released in 1990, and the first meeting of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) was held a year later.

Nevertheless, it took more than 20 years for the international community to commit to action, at the Earth Summit in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The resulting UNFCCC entered into force two years later, providing a framework for ongoing climate negotiations in the form of preparatory conferences and the annual COP.

The first legally binding agreement on climate change

In 1995, the first Conference of the Parties took place in Berlin, followed by COP2 in Geneva, Switzerland. Both formed the basis for subsequent international climate talks. In 1997, the focus was the implementation of the UNFCCC. After long negotiations, the Parties agreed on the Kyoto Protocol, the most far-reaching climate agreement to date. For the first time, an absolute and legally binding limit on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for industrialised countries was anchored in an international treaty.

The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005; 192 parties eventually ratified. Notably, the US was not among this group, despite becoming a signatory during COP4.

With the Kyoto Protocol, 37 industrialised countries committed themselves to reduce GHG emissions to an average of about 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. No restrictions were imposed on developing countries, even high polluters. International emissions trading was also introduced.

Long negotiations lead to a turning point

Soon after the initial negotiations, it became clear that many points of the Kyoto Protocol were still unresolved. For this reason, the parties agreed in 1998 to adopt the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, establishing deadlines for finalising work on the different Kyoto mechanisms (Joint implementation, Emissions trading, and the Clean Development Mechanism), compliance issues, and policies and measures. These topics remained the focus for the next decade.

In 2009, COP15 attempted to establish a successor agreement to the Kyoto Protocol, which was due to expire in 2012. Instead, the conference ended with the Copenhagen Accord, which promoted taking action to keep temperature increases below 2°C but did not specify measures.

As well as the non-binding Accord, COP15 did reach two key outcomes. Industrialised countries committing to economy-wide emissions reduction targets by 2020, while countries in the global south committed to voluntary self-financed climate action measures and to establish a register for measures supported by industrialised countries.

Industrialised countries further agreed to mobilise US$100 billion annually by 2020 to fund climate action in countries of the global south, on the condition that the latter make meaningful and transparent mitigation commitments to reduce GHG emissions.

Cancún Agreements set the 2°C global temperature target

At COP16 in 2010, the parties adopted the Cancún Agreements, formalising the 2°C target of reducing global warming above pre-industrial levels.

The following year, COP17's Durban Platform for Enhanced Action committed all major economies to emissions reduction. The Kyoto Protocol was extended for a second period from the beginning of 2013, which was prolonged to 2020 as part of COP18's Doha Climate Gateway.

COP19 in Warsaw resulted in a road map for a new climate agreement. The Parties also agreed on a rulebook for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and a Green Climate Fund for financing mitigation and adaptation measures. COP20 in Lima was the last year of negotiations on the new agreement, which was finally adopted in 2015.

The Paris Agreement: A historic breakthrough

After many years of intensive negotiations, the 196 parties present at COP21 in Paris adopted the Paris Agreement, a legally binding treaty on climate change that mapped out a vision for a net zero emissions future. All countries agreed to submit their climate action plans, known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs), by 2020. All major emitting countries committed to reducing their GHG emissions and strengthening their commitments over time. But the Paris Agreement is perhaps most memorable for its target of limiting global warming to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, above pre-industrial levels.

Climate action at COP following Paris

Germany presented its Climate Action Plan 2050 the following year in Morocco. This was one of the first countries to demonstrate an ambitious long-term climate action strategy, aiming to reduce its emissions by 80% to 95% by 2050. The focus of the following conferences remained on the Paris Rulebook, which addresses questions such as how countries are to measure and report on their GHG emissions.

COP26, which was pushed back to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, resulted in the signing of the Glasgow Climate Pact. This Pact finally agreed on the Paris Rulebook, and included commitments to end "inefficient" fossil fuel subsidies and to move away from coal.

Perhaps the most important outcome of COP27 in Egypt was the agreement on a loss and damage fund for the countries most affected by climate change.

The final agreement at COP28 in the United Arab Emirates made history by calling for a transition away from fossil fuels. The text called for "transitioning away from fossil fuels," a phrase that was widely seen as a compromise. Many climate-vulnerable countries and civil society groups criticised the wording for avoiding stronger language such as "phase-out," arguing that it lacked the urgency and clarity needed to drive meaningful change. Despite this, the reference marked a symbolic shift in global climate negotiations, acknowledging the central role of fossil fuels in the climate crisis.

COP28 also marked the conclusion of the first Global Stocktake, which assessed collective progress toward achieving the Agreement’s goals, revealing that current efforts remain insufficient to limit global warming to 1.5°C. The findings are intended to inform the next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs), which countries are expected to submit ahead of COP30. The Stocktake underscored the need for accelerated action across all sectors and highlighted gaps in implementation, finance, and ambition.

COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan, delivered two major outcomes that advanced the implementation of the Paris Agreement. First, parties agreed on a New Collective Quantified Goal for climate finance, setting a global target of 1.3 trillion US dollars per year by 2035. Developed countries committed to mobilising 300 billion US dollars annually as part of this goal, replacing the previous 100 billion US dollar target set at COP15 in Copenhagen.

However, this figure was met with criticism from developing nations and climate finance experts, who argued that 300 billion US dollars falls far short of the actual needs for adaptation and mitigation in vulnerable regions.

Second, COP29 marked the agreement on technical rules for Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, which enables international cooperation through carbon markets and non-market approaches. Article 6 consists of three components:

• Article 6.2 establishes a decentralised framework for bilateral and multilateral trading of carbon credits, known as Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs).
• Article 6.4 sets up a centralised UN-supervised carbon market, the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism (PACM); the first issuance was approved February 2026.
• Article 6.8 focuses on non-market approaches that promote sustainable development and poverty eradication.

Together, these outcomes strengthen both the financial and cooperative pillars of global climate governance, though concerns remain about the adequacy and equity of the commitments made.

COP30 in Belém: Implementation takes centre stage

The 30th UN Climate Change Conference (COP30) in Belém, Brazil, closed after overtime with the Global Mutirão decision, named after the Portuguese word for a collective effort.

Countries called for at least tripling adaptation finance by 2035, set 59 indicators to track adaptation progress, launched two voluntary initiatives to help deliver national climate plans, created the Belém Action Mechanism for a just transition, and adopted core standards for the UN carbon market under Article 6.4.

COP30 did not agree a negotiated roadmap for transitioning away from fossil fuels. Work on the issue continued in 2026, including at the first Conference on Transitioning Away from Fossil Fuels in Santa Marta, Colombia, where 57 countries discussed practical approaches to a just, orderly and equitable transition. The conference was designed to complement the UN climate process rather than form part of the formal negotiations, and its discussions now provide additional political context heading into COP31.

COP31 in Antalya: What to expect

COP31 takes place at the Antalya Expo Center in Turkey from 9 to 20 November 2026. It is the first COP with shared leadership: Turkey holds the presidency, hosts the conference and the World Leaders Summit, and leads the Action Agenda, while Australia serves as President of Negotiations and steers the formal talks. Fiji hosted the pre-COP meeting in Nadi from 5 to 8 October 2026, with a leaders' segment in Tuvalu, to put the priorities of Pacific Island countries at the centre of the preparations.

The Pacific Pre-COP in Fiji and Tuvalu was part of the compromise reached after Turkey and Australia had both sought to host COP31. While the main conference will take place in Turkey, the Pre-COP was deliberately held in the Pacific to give the region greater visibility in the COP31 process. The meeting reinforced priorities including keeping 1.5°C within reach, improving access to climate finance, strengthening resilience and elevating the ocean-climate nexus, helping bring the perspectives of climate-vulnerable Pacific Island countries into the preparations for Antalya.

Leaders also adopted the Taku Pakasoa Declaration, reinforcing calls for collective action on 1.5°C, climate finance, resilience and ocean protection ahead of COP31.

The presidencies have billed COP31 as an implementation COP, with several themes on the agenda:

• Speeding up the global shift to renewable energy and electrification
• Mobilising finance and investment for climate action
• Delivering NDCs and national adaptation plans (NAPs)
• Developing the mechanism for a just transition
• Following up on the Belém Mission to 1.5°C and the Global Implementation Accelerator
• Elevating the priorities of Pacific Island countries

For carbon markets, 2026 is the first full year of implementation for the Paris Agreement Crediting Mechanism, and countries will take stock of how Article 6 is working in practice.

What COP31 means for companies

COP decisions are made by governments, but they quickly shape the rules, markets, and expectations that companies work with:

• National climate plans turn into policy. As countries put their NDCs into practice, regulation, reporting requirements, and supply chain expectations tend to tighten. Companies that reduce their emissions now are better prepared.
• Climate finance needs private capital. Reaching US$1.3 trillion a year will take more than public money. Companies that finance climate projects help close the gap, as a complement to reducing their own emissions, never a substitute.